by Jo-Gau Keith Worfel
The Confucian Analects. or Lun Yu in Chinese, can also be translated as "Discourses and Dialogues" or "Digested Conversations". The title is derived simply from the fact that the work is composed primarily of discussions that Confucius had with his disciples on various topics. It can be considered a rulebook for life, which every person should obey, according to the beliefs of Confucius. The Analects contains 20 Books which were compiled not by Confucius, but by his disciples and by the disciples of his disciples. Each Book consists of an average of about 25 Chapters. Each Chapter relates a different story, belief, or saying of Confucius or his disciples.
To understand the Analects one must understand Confucianism. In essence, a study of the Lun Yu is a study of the philosophy of Confucius. Current Chinese philosophy primarily revolves around one of three modes of thought: Confucianism, Taoism, or Neo-Confucianism.
Confucianism deals with a belief in social interaction, or humanism. Taoism deals with a belief in acting in harmony with nature, or naturalism. Neo-Confucianism is a synthesis of Chinese Buddhism, Confucianism. And 'Taoism. All three have a common goal in that there is an attempt at perfecting the self. This includes both inner perfection (peace of mind) and outer perfection (actions toward others). It' every person achieves perfection, then there will be happiness and harmony in the world. The belief in the source of values used to attain perfection is wherein lies the difference between the three philosophies. After a brief lesson in Confucianism, the Analects may be studied and understood more clearly.
CONFUCIANISM
Confucius (551 - 479 Bc) believed that human beings contained the source of values needed to improve themselves, which in turn would improve society. To understand why Confucius thought it was necessary to teach his values and practices it is helpful to know about the times of his early years. Confucius, also called the Sage or the Master, lived at a time when he personally witnessed political and social disintegration. China was in a state of turmoil. As a result, he decided to dedicate his life to social reform. Confucius hoped to educate society in order to improve the quality of life and restore a sense of morality among the people. He believed that people were basically good, but the reason for the nation's downturn was due to people either "forgetting" how to be good or not "practicing" being good. For the community to learn, or to remember, how to act with virtue requires active participation on the part of every individual. Emphasis was placed on political, social, and familial order of human life. Order comes from doing, or "practicing", what is right. This is essential for every classification within a culture, because political groups affect society, social groups affect families, and families affect individuals. The reciprocal, yet complementary process is that an individual will affect their family, a family will affect society, and society will affect government. Therefore, the contentment of humanity is dependent on every individual and group acting in accord with virtue and righteousness.
Many of the beliefs in the philosophy of Confucianism can be found in the Analects. Several of these beliefs will be expanded upon since they are fundamental concepts in the majority of the sayings and discussions. The following will be covered in greater detail: humanity, propriety, filial piety, righteousness, rectification of names, reciprocity, and governing by virtue. For each concept there are specific examples cited from the Analects.
The Chinese term jen can be translated as human-heartedness, humanity, virtue, benevolence, morality, etc. In essence, jen is what makes humans truly human. This is probably the most important concept in the beliefs of Confucius. The ultimate principle of humanity lies in acting according to jen. All beliefs and actions of the Master revolve around this. One example can be found in Book 1, Chapter 6: The Master said, "A youth, when at home, should be filial, and, abroad, respectful to his elders. He should be earnest and truthful. He should overflow in love to all, and cultivate the friendship of the good."' Another example is found in Book 5, Chapter 15, as Confucius describes the characteristics of a "superior man": "[in] conduct of himself, he was humble; in serving his superiors, he was respectful; in nourishing the people, he was kind; in ordering the people, he was just." According to the Sage everyone must constantly strive to perfect their jen. Also, jen must be displayed towards all people, regardless of personality conflicts or of one's status. Once this happens, people will be happy. there will be harmony in society, and then there will be peace in the world,
One of the primary ways to exhibit, jen is by conforming to the rules of propriety (li). Confucius believed there must be defined rules that society will comply with in such matters as social relationships, religious ceremonies, and other general customs. Li is acting properly according to one's role or situation. Modern examples of propriety can be a simple handshake between two people when greeting each other or it can be the specific duties executed by the best man at a wedding. Book 8, Chapter 2 indicates several reasons why propriety is necessary: "The Master said, 'Respectfulness, without the rules of propriety, becomes laborious bustle; carefulness, without the rules of propriety, becomes timidity; boldness, without the rules of propriety, becomes insubordination; straightforwardness, without the rules of propriety, becomes rudeness."' Whether in the home, in the community, or on the job, li is necessary and should always be followed.
Filial piety (hsiao) is the root of where, jen first develops. Family is the first environment in which a human begins to learn. Acquiring a sense of respect and admiration towards one's parents at an early age is essential for the proper development of future social relationships. If a child is raised in a home where the parents venerate no respect, then the child will learn that they need not show respect towards anyone else. Therefore, hsiao is required for a person to learn virtue within the family. Eventually, the virtue displayed within the family is manifested into society. In Book I . Chapter 2, a disciple of Confucius can be found to have said, "They are few who, being filial and fraternal, are fond of offending against their superiors. There have been none, who, not liking to offend against their superiors, have been fond of stirring up confusion... Filial piety and fraternal submission! - are they not the root of all benevolent actions?"
Righteousness (yi) is the virtue of knowing and acting according to what is right. Confucius stressed the need for righteousness in order to improve jen. Yi is developed more fully once people rid themselves of their prejudices. One should not claim to want or not want to do something. Rather, one should just do what needs to be done, as long as it is right. Certain situations may require actions to performed solely for the reason that they are right. Book 4, Chapter 10: "The Master said. 'The superior man. in the world, does not set his mind either for anything, or against anything, what is right he will follow."' This concept is considered opposite of the majority of modern Western thought: do whatever it takes to succeed. Confucius did realize it was necessary to have certain material possessions. However, personal gain must oiiin, be achieved in accordance with yi. Book 4, Chapter 16: The Master said. "The mind of the Superior man is conversant with righteousness, the mind of the mean man is conversant with gain."’
The rectification of names (cheng-ming) refers to the correct use of words in their proper context. Confucius primarily promoted the right use of words in connection with a person's actions or relationships. Cheng-ming emphasizes fulfilling the duties of the current position that a person is in, rather than just knowing the definition of a word and using it properly. Confucius explained this in Book 12, Chapter I 1. When a political official asked the Sage about government, he replied, "There is government, when the prince is prince, and the minister is minister; when the father is father, and the son is son." In other words, do not act contrary to your currently defined situation or role. This belief illustrates the requirement for a highly ordered society, according to Confucius. Several reasons for rectifying names are found in Book 13, Chapter 3: "]'he Master said, '...If names be not correct, language is not in accordance with the truth of things. If language be not in accordance with the truth of things, affairs cannot be carried on to success. When affairs cannot be carried on to success, proprieties and music will not flourish. When proprieties and music do not flourish, punishments will not be properly awarded. When punishments are not properly awarded, the people do not know how to move hand or foot. Therefore a superior man considers it necessary that the names he uses may be spoken appropriately, and also that what he speaks may be carried out appropriately. What the superior man requires, is just that in his words there maybe nothing incorrect."'
Reciprocity can be simply explained by one chapter (Book 15, Chapter23). It contains one of the most well known sayings by Confucius: "Tsze-kung asked, saying, 'Is there one word which may serve as a rule of practice for all one's life?' The Master said, 'Is not reciprocity such a word? What you do not want done to yourself, do not do to others. "'
Governing by virtue is a necessity that may seem to be an impossible task. However, to obtain the ultimate goal of individual perfection and world peace, Confucius promoted the display of virtue by all rulers. To lead by example is required for success. What citizens learn from government is very similar to the student/teacher relationship and the worker/employer relationship. People will tend to act in the same way their superiors act. Therefore, authority figures in politics must act with virtue if the people are to act with virtue. The saying "do what I say, not what I do" is not acceptable. A disciple asked Confucius about government. His reply was, "To govern means to rectify. If you lead on the people with correctness, who will dare not to be correct?" (Book 12 Chapter 17)
These concepts serve as a brief overview of the main themes that are found in the Analects and in the philosophy of Confucianism. There are two other miscellaneous points that one should be aware of while reading the Lun lu. Confucius obviously put heavy emphasis on governmental and social order. However, in regard to beliefs and actions, the Master did not care to make a distinction between government and society as separate groups. What was true for government was also true for society, and vice versa. Therefore, when one reads about a political issue, it should be able to be applied to a situation in society. The opposite would also be true. Confucius also made no distinction between ethics and politics, as we tend to do in modern society. To the Sage, ethics and politics were inseparable. This is evident by his belief in the act of governing by virtue.
THE ANALECTS
The Analects of Confucius is divided into twenty Books. Within each book contains a number of Chapters, ranging anywhere from three to forty-seven Chapters. Each Chapter can be considered an "Analect", because each Chapter consists of a specific discussion or common theme.
Providing a synopsis of each Book is a difficult task. The Chapters within each Book are arranged rather arbitrarily according to their content. Certain Books seem to have a similar group of Confucian beliefs or themes. Most Books, however, contain a wide variety of unrelated Chapters. Every Book has a title which is normally derived from the first few words of the first Chapter in the respective Book. The title of each Book, as previously alluded to, does not indicate what the entire Book is about. All titles are relatively short; some of which are simply the names of disciples.
Many translations of the Lun Yu exist. The translation cited here is that of James Legge. Mr. Legge was a Sinologist from England. He became a missionary to the East in 1839 and spent many years in China. He was considered one of the foremost authorities in Chinese philosophy and has studied and translated all known Confucian works. Through Mr. Legge's translation, the following is a list of the titles and number of chapters in each Book:
Book I "The Master said"...16 Chapters
Book 11 "The practice of government"...24 Chapters
Book III "Eight rows"...26 Chapters
Book IV "Virtue in a neighborhood"...26 Chapters
Book V" "Kung-ye Ch'ang"...27 Chapters
Book VI "There is Yung!" ...28 Chapters
Book VII "A transmitter, and..."...37 Chapters
Book VIII "Tai-po"...21 Chapters
Book IX "The Master seldom"...30 Chapters
Book X "The village"...18 Chapters
Book XI "The former men"...25 Chapters
Book XII "Yen Yuan"...24 Chapters
Book XIII "Tsze-lu"...30 Chapters
Book XIV "Hsien asked"...47 Chapters
Book XV "The Duke Ling of Wei"...41 Chapters
Book XVI "The chief of the Chi"...14 Chapters
Book XVII "Yang Ho"...26 Chapters
Book XVIII "The viscount of Wei"...11 Chapters
Book XIX "Tsze-Chang"...25 Chapters
Book XX "Yao said"...3 Chapters
Without reprinting the entire Analects it would be virtually impossible to convey what each of the 499 Chapters is about. However, there are certain highlights or common themes, other than those described above, that are worthy of bring noted.
Education was extremely important to Confucius. In order to practice and demonstrate the virtues professed by Confucius, one must learn about virtue. Therefore, proper education is required for one to know how to act with propriety, righteousness, etc. Many Books, I and 2 in particular, contain several Chapters which refer to the importance of education.
Other virtues, or characteristics, that are found throughout the Analects which Confucius considered important: being humble and content, having pure thoughts, ceremonial rites and music, humility, being relaxed/at ease, and conforming to the mean (reference the Chuna Yunz - The Doctrine of the Mean - another Confucian classic).
This overview of the Confucian Analects should give the reader a basic understanding of this 2,500 year old work. Understanding Confucianism is necessary to know what to expect from this book. Conversely, one can actually learn about Confucianism from studying the Analects. Regardless, the Confucian Analects 'is an attempt by Confucian disciples to relay the ideas and beliefs of one man. These beliefs would hopefully transform society into a better whole. Most people would agree that there is a long way to go before perfection of individuals and society is attained. However, as long as there is some improvement in society, and if there are some individuals who attain perfection, then I think Confucius would be pleased.
ABOUT THE AUTHOR
Keith Worfel is a Certified Wing Chun instructor living in Arizona, he teaches at
the Academy of Self Defense in Prescott Valley. Anyone wishing to contact Keith may do so
through the Association. We will forward all mail directly to Mr.Worfel.